Ancient Greek And Roman Worlds - 1502 Words

Yesenia Garza Professor Margaret Wintersole ENGL 1302 4 November 2015 Greco-Roman Aesthetics The ancient Greek and Roman worlds made important contributions to both religion and philosophy, the study of the nature of truth, knowledge, and moral values. In fact, the word philosophy is Greek origin, containing the world s philia or to love with Sophia or wisdom. Two of the most powerful empires in the ancient world were Greece and Rome. In order to understand these two different yet similar worlds, you have to understand the religion behind it all. Religion was the lens that allowed them to view this world and understand the universe with all the events it brought. The Greco-Roman World was polytheistic.†¦show more content†¦Greco-Roman worship practices were focused on the cosmic realm. Both groups, Greek, and Romans believed that gods influenced natural phenomena. Romans had a view of themselves as powerful. They believed they had a war-like nature and were descendants of the god of war. The god of war had strength. R omans believed Greeks fate was bringing culture to this world while their fate was bringing order to it. Romans felt destined to be rulers since the beginning. They believed the task the gods designated to them was to rule over people. Romans conquered Greece. When that happened, Roman s were consumed by the Greek religion, science, and even their architecture. Roman culture was greatly influenced by the Greeks. The Greco-Roman culture was revived in Europe during the Renaissance. Greco-Roman culture is also known as the classical civilization. The Classical Civilization was a broad term for a long period of cultural history centered on the Mediterranean Sea, which begins roughly with the earliest-recorded Greek poetry of Homer (7th century BC), and continues through the rise of Alexander the Great and the Fall of the Western Roman Empire. The Greco-Roman culture consists of Roman, Greek, and Hellenistic culture. They had a republic form of government. Greeks had philosophers. Greeks created a direct democracy. The Roman s language was that of love or Latin. Romans admired Greek culture. Greek Gods

The Scarlet Letter, By Nathaniel Hawthorne - 1700 Words

Children have sponge-like mindsets that are full of curiosity and through each negative and positive encounter, they are able to learn from their experiences. Through their experiences, they are able to be more perceptive about their surroundings and are more honest than adults because they do not know what they say is either right or wrong. Children differ from adults in their potential for expressing these perceptions because they are not afraid to say or express anything but the truth. The children in Nathaniel Hawthorne’s novel, The Scarlet Letter, are presented as more perceptive and honest than adults due to their actions of perceiving Hester’s scarlet letter, expressing their opinions without knowing if it is right or wrong, and their willingness to ask questions. In the Scarlet Letter, Hester’s daughter, Pearl, has a willingness to ask questions about the scarlet letter on Hesters chest to help her have a better understanding of why her mother wears it. P earl shows how different a childs mind is from an adults since she does not understand the mark on her mother s chest is a punishment. Children are able to be more perceptive and honest than adults because they express their ideas out loud without knowing if it is either correct or incorrect; despite how rude it might be. The ideas that children pick up are usually picked up by the action of their parents. Children are shown to be blunt and innocent because they are young and curious about everything leading themShow MoreRelatedThe Scarlet Letter By Nathaniel Hawthorne1242 Words   |  5 PagesLYS PAUL Modern Literature Ms. Gordon The Scarlet Letter The scarlet letter is book written by Nathaniel Hawthorne who is known as one the most studied writers because of his use of allegory and symbolism. He was born on July 4, 1804 in the family of Nathaniel, his father, and Elizabeth Clark Hathorne his mother. Nathaniel added â€Å"W† to his name to distance himself from the side of the family. His father Nathaniel, was a sea captain, and died in 1808 with a yellow fever while at sea. That was aRead MoreThe Scarlet Letter By Nathaniel Hawthorne960 Words   |  4 Pages3H 13 August 2014 The novel, The Scarlet Letter, was written by the author Nathaniel Hawthorne and was published in 1850 (1). It is a story about the Puritan settlers of the Massachusetts Bay Colony, set around 1650 (2). The story is written in the third person with the narrator being the author. The common thread that runs through this novel is Hawthorne’s apparent understanding of the beliefs and culture of the Puritans in America at that time. But Hawthorne is writing about events in a societyRead MoreThe Scarlet Letter, By Nathaniel Hawthorne919 Words   |  4 Pagessymbolism in Nathaniel Hawthorne’s â€Å"The Scarlet Letter†. Symbolism is when an object is used in place of a different object. Nathaniel Hawthorne is one of the most symbolic writers in all of American history. In â€Å"The Scarlet Letter†, the letter â€Å"A† is used to symbolize a variety of different concepts. The three major symbolistic ideas that the letter â€Å"A† represents in Nathaniel Hawthorne’s â€Å"The Scarlet Letter† are; shame, guilt, and ability. In Nathaniel Hawthorne’s â€Å"The Scarlet Letter†, the firstRead MoreThe Scarlet Letter By Nathaniel Hawthorne1397 Words   |  6 PagesFebruary 2016 The Scarlet Letter was written by Nathaniel Hawthorne in 1850 which is based on the time frame of the Puritans, a religious group who arrived in Massachusetts in the 1630’s. The Puritans were in a religious period that was known for the strict social norms in which lead to the intolerance of different lifestyles. Nathaniel Hawthorne uses the puritan’s strict lifestyles to relate to the universal issues among us. The time frame of the puritans resulted in Hawthorne eventually thinkingRead MoreThe Scarlet Letter By Nathaniel Hawthorne999 Words   |  4 Pages Nathaniel Hawthorne is the author of the prodigious book entitled The Scarlet Letter. In The Scarlet Letter, Hester Prynne commits adultery with Reverend Arthur Dimmesdale. Her husband, Roger Chillingworth, soon finds out about the incident after it becomes clear that she is pregnant. The whole town finds out and Hester is tried and punished. Meanwhile, Roger Chillingworth goes out then on a mission to get revenge by becoming a doctor and misprescribing Dimmesdale. He does this to torture DimmesdaleRead MoreThe Scarlet Letter, by Nathaniel Hawthorne1037 Words   |  5 Pagesthat human nature knows right from wrong, but is naturally evil and that no man is entirely â€Å"good†. Nathaniel Hawthorne, author of the classic novel The Scarlet Letter, believes that every man is innately good and Hawthorne shows that everyone has a natural good side by Hester’s complex character, Chillingworth’s actions and Dimmesdale’s selfless personality. At the beginning of the Scarlet Letter Hester Prynne is labeled as the â€Å"bad guy†. The townspeople demand the other adulterer’s name, butRead MoreThe Scarlet Letter By Nathaniel Hawthorne1517 Words   |  7 PagesNathaniel Hawthorne composes Pearl as a powerful character even though she is not the main one. Her actions not only represent what she is as a person, but what other characters are and what their actions are. Hawthorne makes Pearl the character that helps readers understand what the other characters are. She fits perfectly into every scene she is mentioned in because of the way her identity and personality is. Pearl grows throughout the book, which in the end, help the readers better understandRead MoreThe Scarlet Letter, By Nathaniel Hawthorne1488 Words   |  6 Pages In Nathaniel Hawthorne’s novel The Scarlet Letter, the main character, Hester Prynne, is a true contemporary of the modern era, being cast into 17th century Puritan Boston, Massachusetts. The Scarlet Letter is a revolutionary novel by Nathaniel Hawthorne examining the ugliness, complexity, and strength of the human spirit and character that shares new ideas about independence and the struggles women faced in 17th century America. Throughout the novel, Hester’s refusal to remove the scarlet letterRead MoreThe Scarlet Letter By Nathaniel Hawthorne1319 Words   |  6 PagesPrynne and Arthur Dimmesdale are subject to this very notion in Nathaniel Hawthorne s The Scarlet Letter. Hester simply accepted that what she had done was wrong, whereas Dimmesdale, being a man of high regard, did not want to accept the reality of what he did. Similar to Hester and Dimmesdale, Roger Chillingworth allows his emotions to influence his life; however, his influence came as the result of hi s anger. Throughout the book, Hawthorne documents how Dimmesdale and Hester s different ways of dealingRead MoreThe Scarlet Letter By Nathaniel Hawthorne1714 Words   |  7 PagesSome two hundred years following the course of events in the infamous and rigid Puritan Massachusetts Colony in the 1600s, Nathaniel Hawthorne, descendant of a Puritan magistrate, in the 19th century, published The Scarlet Letter. Wherein such work, Hawthorne offered a social critique against 17th Massachusetts through the use of complex and dynamic characters and literary Romanticism to shed light on said society’s inherent contradiction to natural order and natural law. In his conclusive statements

Beatles Memorabilia Intellectual Property/Contract

Question: Discuss about theBeatles Memorabilia Intellectual Property/Contract. Answer: Intellectual Property Intellectual property refers to innovation that is brought about by intelligence and creativity of the inventor. They include things such as designs or manuscript that an individual can have right over and can apply for a trademark, copyright, patent, industrial design rights and trade secrets in certain jurisdictions(Rimmer, 2008). The intellectual property concept was actually established by the British statute of Ann (1710) and the statute of monopolies (1624) appears to be origins of patent law and copyright correspondingly. There is an automatic protection of copyright if an authorship original work is fixed in a concrete medium of communication. Fixed means a work is "adequately enduring or steady to allow it to be perceived, duplicated, or else communicated for a time that is more than transitory period. In the case of Bleistein v. Donaldson Lithograph 1903, Justice Holmes stated, the policy judgment that encourages the production of wheat also requires the protection of a lot of chaff while warning against the use of aesthetic criteria(Mark Davison, 2015). Nevertheless, it should be noted that copyright protects duplication of expression of the work itself and not the idea behind it. Since Paul is the owner and manager of Fab Four, he is the original owner of the copyright. Use of the Fab Four video to promote trivia night was an infringement of the copyright since there was no permission from Paul who was the original owner of the video in question. Under federal law, this infringement is considered a crime as copyright itself is a federal law(Jill McKeough, 2004). Paul could have a valid claim if can show that there was access to his work and the video is significantly similar to his. In court, an ordinary observer test is used to decide whether the work in question is similar. In this case, it is clear that Don has infringed the copyright. Don used Pauls work without permission, altered and used it in social media to market his fame and popularity. Don is in violation of production rights because of (the distribution right) distributing the altered video in social network and (the right to create derivative work), the mixed video is derivative of the original Fab Four video. There are six exclusive rights to the copyright owner over the copyrighted work. They are namely: Reproduction right- this gives the owner right to duplicate, copy, transcribe or imitate work in fixed form. Modification right- also derivative works right, is the right to twist the work and come up with a new work. This new work is known as derivative work. Public performance right- this is the right to act, show or transmit to public. Sound recordings do not enjoy this right. Distribution right- it is public distribution of copies through sale or lending Right to distribute copies or phonorecords- copyrighted to the public by any transfer methods. Public display right- transmitting or display to the public in the form of video or televising. In reference to the above copyright owner rights it clear that Don has infringed several of the rights. The derivative works right was infringed by mixing the original video with cats video. He showed the video to the public through social media as his own, which was an infringement of public performance rights. Contract A disclaimer or exoneration of liability is a contractual phrase intended to avoid an individual who engaged the contract from taking legal action and litigating for personal damages. When items are left in cloakroom service free, the one receiving goods must not be negligent and there are no contractual rights according to Griffin's words. She stated that if someone leaves a jacket or a coat on the rack of a crowded restaurant, realistically he/she does so at his/her own risk(Ewan McKendrick, 2015). If the place or restaurant was hired by an organization that the victim works with, then that person can claim for loss or damage to that organization since they are the ones who paid for that place and are therefore in an existing contract with the services offered in that venue. A consumer law specialist Margaret Griffins stated that, When you pay for a service, like a cloakroom service, under consumer law, you enter into a contract with the provider, which means theyre required to take reasonable care of your goods and perform the service with reasonable care and skill. In this case, a person who leaves his belongings can expect them to be properly and safely looked after and cannot be given to someone else with the wrong ticket(John W. Carter, 2007). Though in reality, it is always difficult to determine and prove how the lost item was like, according to Griffins one might have a case for compensation if given the wrong coat or the coat is lost. In some places, disclaimers are put to waive responsibility for lost items. While these disclaimers might once have some legal basis, Silverman Sherliker a senior partner with a law firm stated that, it can be deemed an unfair term to say you accept no liability, under Unfair Contract Terms 1980 legislation. Bob handed over his coat to Ringo, who works in the cloakroom and was issued with a ticket that has a disclaimer in the back. The disclaimer states, We do not take any responsibility or liability for clothing checked in to our cloakroom. The owners of Beatles Memorabilia are not liable for the loss of Bobs coat that he claims to be paid. In the first place, this a free service offered to the customer of and Bob did not pay for it. There is therefore no contract between Beatles Memorabilia and Bob. He will not receive any compensation for his coat. Contract Interchanging goods and services between human have been a continued basic activity between human beings. The essentiality of trade and shopping rely on fundamental dealings and people settled on the basic values in their transactions, which were mostly relied on promises among people. On the other hand, in the modern age, levels of trade have grown, for that reason firms and merchants required obligatory and binding authorities to ensure their dealings. Even in a tiny business people act in accordance with those kinds of authorities and their set procedures. Offers and invitation to treat are the most important examples of dealings, and they have specific procedures to secure transactions among people. A person who makes an offer to another person with an intention to enter into a contract is referred to as offeror. A binding contract comes into existence when the offeree accepts the offer(Eugene Clark, 201). On the other hand, an invitation to treat has a different definition. It m eans inviting a person to make an offer. When a seller displays the price of an item either as a price tag or on a price list board for customers to see it is termed as an invitation to treat. For there to exist a contract, the offer must be accepted and both parties should agree to the terms and conditions of the contract. Silence can never be considered as acceptance of the offer. The T-shirts cannot be sold to Barbara at $13.00 each. A price tag cannot be a contract if the price displayed by the seller is mistake. This is only considered as inviting a customer to make an offer and the seller does not necessarily need to accept the offer. A contract can only be formed when the seller accepts payment made by a buyer(Contrac, 2011). After this payment is made and accepted the seller is no longer obliged to make the buyer to pay any balance between the advertised price and the real price. For an online transaction, it might be more complicated. Andrew Barrows described an invitation to treat as "...an expression of willingness to negotiate. A person making an invitation to treat does not intend to be bound as soon as it is accepted by the person to whom the statement is addressed." Real offers can be accepted in formation of a contract while an invitation to treat is a representation that might not be accepted. A contract is deemed to be legally binding if a voluntary agreement is formed when an offerer makes an offer and the offeree accepts it. However, even if invitation to treat cant be accepted it should not be ignored since it can have some effects on the offer(S. A. Christensen, 2009). In case a person makes an offer while responding to an invitation to treat the offer may assume the provisions of an invitation to treat unless the person making an offer generates different terms. The t-shirts sold in the store are only unique to the store and there the store can set its price, as it considers profitable since no competitor has the kind of product. Ringo was directed to sell the t-shirts at price of $30.00, which were originally $45.00 each. Barbara believed that the price of the t-shirts was $13.00 as indicated white board. However, this price came as a result of misunderstanding between the manager and Ringo. Therefore when Barbara goes ahead to pay for five t-shirts $13.00 each it is obvious that her offer will be turned down. Either the seller can offer to sell the t-shirts at the original price of $45.00 or the discounted price of $30 since Barbara was not aware of any price before other than then one on the white board. Contract There are three basic features required for existence of a legally enforceable contract. There must be a contractual issue and acceptance of an offer. This implies that both parties entering into a contract agree to its terms and conditions, Both parties must show an intent to form a legally binding contract and Contract must be in support of consideration (an exchange of value). Already Joe owes the store a bill worth $180.00. When he offers the box of figurines to pay for his bill, it was accepted even without knowing what is inside. Regardless of what could be in the box after checking it Joe was not to be asked for any further payment. Yes. There existed a valid contract with Joe. A valid contract exists when an offer is made and accepted(Gillies, 2004). Since the offer that Joe made was accepted and his box of figurines accepted a deal was sealed hence a valid contract. All the basic features of a legal binding contract were honored in sealing this deal. Once an offer has been rejected, it ceases to exist. Rita made a counter offer by rejecting the earlier price quoted by the offerror and proposed a new price of $4500.00. It therefore means that there is no contract formed between the two. Counter offer refers to contract made to respond to another offer. Making counter offer means that there is an automatic rejection of the asking offer, which under terms of counter offer requires acceptance, or otherwise there is no contract existing. This implies that the original offer has been rejected and the game is tossed back to the offerror leaving him with only three choices. (1) To expressly accept the offer by replying or through implication (i.e. by not replying), (2) give another counter offer in response to the one the offeree made, or (3) expressly reject the offer. Note that no binding contract is creatable unless one party accepts the offer by another party. If there is a change of mind by offeree and tries to agree with the terms of the original offer a new offer will be formed in contractual terms. If Rita replied, by stating that she agreed to the asking price there was no contract and this cant restore the original offer. This became a new offer, which is not been accepted to. Usually when both sides makes offer and counter offer it brings confusion among them because they may not understand when the acceptance or rejection is made. An offer or counter offer can be revoked any time by one party before acceptance is made, according to the general rule(Australia, 2014). There can be no legal binding until an offer or counter offer is accepted and this is where complication lies in most cases. The law says there has been meeting of the minds when acceptance occurs and is communicated to the offeror. In Ritas case, she was offered the figurines at a price $5000. She rejected this offer by making a counter offer to buy the items at a price of $4500. Up to this stage, there is no legal binding contract as the buyer and the seller have different minds on the price of figurines. In the following morning, it is communicated to Rita that she can have the figurines at $4500 although she does not read the message up to 9.45am. The point is that acceptance of the counter offer that Rita made in response to the asking price has been communicated. After this communication, there is a legal binding since there exist consensus of minds(Contrac, 2011). A contract becomes binding when acceptance has been communicated to the offeror. About the same time (9.00 am) that acceptance message was sent to Rita, she also sent a message to revoke her counter offer and accept the prior offer of $5000 which the seller had revoked by accepting to the counter offer. This message is received at 9.30 am and seen at 10.00am. According to the electronic records the $4500 deal was fully communicated and was earlier acceptable to both parties. Ritas acceptance of $5000 was made at the same time with acceptance of $4500 but was seen later. At the same time, she had asked for cancellation of her counter offer, which could not be made before acceptance since the communication was late. My opinion is, Rita has made a new offer of $5000 that has been communicated to the seller but has not been accepted yet. There is no legal binding contract on the transaction. So the figurines have not been sold to Rita because there is no agreed price among the two. The $4500 that could have been binding was canceled by the new Ritas offer of agreeing to the original price, which the seller himself had changed mind on. References Australia, L. S. o. W., 2014. Remedies for Breach of Contract: Papers Presented at a Series of Seminars on Remedies for Breach of Contract, Held on the 18, 20 and 26 March 1986 at the Kings Ambassador Hotel, Perth. Perth: Law Society of Western Australia. Caenegem, W. v., 2010. Intellectual Property Law in Australia. illustrated ed. Darwin : Kluwer Law International. Carter, J. W., 2011. Cases and Materials on Contract Law in Australia. 6, revise ed. Canberra: LexisNexis Butterworths. Centre, E. R., 2010. Breach of Contract: Privatisation and the Management of Australian Local Government. Adelaide: Pluto Press. Contrac, C. B. o., 2011. Carter's Breach of Contrac. Perth: LexisNexis Butterworths. David E. Allan, M. E. H., 2007. Law of contract in Australia. Macquarie: CCH Australia. David E. Allan, M. E. H., 2007. Law of contract in Australia. Sydney: CCH Australia. Eugene Clark, L. G. G. C. A. H., 201. Contract Law in Australia. s.l.:Kluwer Law International. Ewan McKendrick, Q. L., 2015. Contract Law: Australian Edition. Tasmania: Palgrave Macmillan, . Gillies, P., 2004. Business Law. revised ed. Leichhardt: Federation Press. Jeannie Marie Paterson, A. R. A. D., 2012. Principles of Contract Law. 4 ed. Perth: Thomson Reuters (Professional) Australia. Jill McKeough, A. J. S. P. B. C. G., 2004. Intellectual Property in Australia. 3 ed. Dayton: LexisNexis Butterworths. John W. Carter, E. P. G. T., 2007. Contract Law in Australia. 5, revised ed. Perth: LexisNexis Butterworths. Kathy Bowrey, M. H. D. N. K. W., 2015. Australian Intellectual Property: Commentary, Law and Practice. 2, illustrated ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press Australia New Zealand. M P Furmston, G. C. C. C. H. S. F., 2012. Cheshire, Fifoot and Furmston's Law of Contract. Oxfrord: OUP Oxford. Mark Davison, A. M. L. W., 2015. Australian Intellectual Property Law. revised ed. Horbat: Horbat University Press. National, A., 2004. Australian National Bibliography. Brisbane: National Library Australia. Rimmer, M., 2008. Intellectual Property and Biotechnology: Biological Invention. reprint ed. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar Publishing. A. Christensen, W. D. D., 2009. Sale of Businesses in Australia. revised ed. Leichhardt: Federation Press. Webster, E., 2004. SMEs and Their Use of Intellectual Property Rights in Australia. Tasmania: IPRIA.

Vinegar Eel Bio free essay sample

The most toxic metals were silver, lead and iron, all killing the eels in under four minutes, with silver taking only 1 minute and 40 seconds to kill the eels, and only 13 seconds to make the eels stop forward motion. Strontium wasnt effective as after 5 minutes of exposure to it, the eels hadnt died or stopped forward motion. 2) a) The accepted toxicity varies from metal to metal. The accepted toxic level of lead is 0. 0012 parts per million, however it is not considered safe at any level. The environmental protection agency says that the maximum contaminant level for cadmium In drinking eater is 0. 05 MGM/L. In soil it is said that the highest amount of cadmium that can be accepted in land is 85 MGM/keg. For Mercury the accepted toxic level in aquatic systems in IPPP b) Heavy metal pollution is a problem usually associated with areas of Intensive Industry. However, roadways and automobiles now are considered to be one of the largest sources of heavy metals. We will write a custom essay sample on Vinegar Eel Bio or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Zinc, copper, and lead are three of the most common heavy metals released from road travel, accounting for at least 90 of the total metals in road runoff. Lead concentrations, however, consistently have been decreasing since leaded gasoline as discontinued. Smaller amounts of many other metals, such as nickel and cadmium, are also found in road runoff and exhaust. About half of the zinc and copper contribution to the environment from arbitration is from automobiles. Brakes release copper, while tire wear releases zinc. Motor oil also tends to accumulate metals as It comes Into contact with surrounding parts as the engine runs, so oil leaks become another pathway by which metals enter the environment. C) Yes, these heavy metals can fasciculate in organisms in our food chain, especially fish. This is because heavy metals are part of Earths crust; they can be worn away by the action of weather.When they are worn off of rock, they can collect In surface or groundwater. Humans can sometimes eat these fish, which isnt good because heavy metals such as lead, cadmium, cobalt, nickel, and mercury can affect blood cells. The build-up of heavy metals can cause harm to the liver, kidneys, the circulatory system and the movement of nerve signals. Some of these metals can also contribute to the development of different types of cancers. D) As stated above, these heavy metals can cause harm to the liver, kidneys, regulatory system, and nerve signals, as well as the formation of blood cells.Again, they can also contribute to the development of different types of cancers. E) A portion of harmful chemical pollutants can be removed by a process known as premeditation, a process involving microorganisms or plants that help clean up the pollutants. Reacting contaminants with certain chemicals can also make them less harmful. Conclusion: they affect most organisms the same way they affected the vinegar eels. And because there arent very many ways to clean up the metals, we need to change our actions.

Electoral College System Essays (714 words) - Psephology

Electoral College System After the last presidential election, which is still underway apparently, there is much controversy over what should happen to the Electoral College system. There are people who say that the Electoral College is good but should be modified to meet the needs of the modern world. There are those who say that the Electoral College system is too outdated to be modified and should be entirely eliminated. Finally there are those who say that it is has stood the test of time and is still the best system for our country. The original framers of the constitution obviously preferred the electoral system to a direct popular election. The argument that historians give for this is that they preferred this system because travel was difficult and there were no national party organizations. I personally reject this argument. I agree that travel was difficult back then, but wouldnt that have meant that the candidate who lived closest to the most largest states would have an un-fair advantage under the electoral system back then? The historians add that the framers feared that many regional candidates would divide the vote, and that by requiring a candidate to win a majority in the Electoral College was a way of obtaining a national census. There have been many attempts to reform or even scrap the Electoral College election sense its birth. The most recent one being in 1997 when congress debated a constitutional amendment to replace the electoral system with a direct popular vote system. However the Electoral College system to this day remains virtually un-changed from its original form. The only exception is the twelfth amendment, which requires each elector to cast two votes, one for president and one for vice president. Under the current system there are five hundred and thirty eight electors. Each state gets one elector, each representative, and a senator. A presidential candidate needs two hundred and seventy votes to win the election. The electors meet after the November popular election to cast their votes and officially elect the president. Electors may vote for whomever they wish. Each states electoral votes are awarded on a winner take all bases. The arguments to modify or eliminate the Electoral College system are all derived from the notion that it is outdated. Under the current system if a candidate wins a large states like California, then they win twenty percent of the needed votes even though California only accounts for eleven percent of the U.S. population. Whats more is a president can be elected without winning a majority of the popular vote. This has happened 15 times in U.S. history. The constitution allows electors to use their discretion. Seven times in history an elector has not casted his vote for the peoples choice. Fortunately this has not yet had a real affect on the outcome of an election. Under the current system each states electoral votes are awarded on a winner take all basis. This makes it extremely difficult for a third party or independent candidate to win any electoral votes. In fact, by concentrating support in certain states, a candidate can take the presidency with out winning more popular votes than his opponent. According to the 1990 census, a candidate only needs to win eleven of the most heavily populated of the fifty states in order to take the presidency. The arguments to maintain the Electoral College system are all derived from the notion that it has worked fine thus far. There have been many attempts to reform the electoral system but none of them have been successful. This is due to the fact that no election system is perfect, but the current system has stood the test of time. It has never rejected the winner of a popular vote majority. It always produces clear and immediately known winners, so far. Getting rid of the Electoral College system would be profoundly dangerous. Especially with the way modern elections are conducted. This would mean that the totality of our campaigns would be a television advertising tarmac kind of campaign. We would be handing the American presidential campaign to whatever media adviser could out slick the other, and not necessarily to the best candidate for our country. Political Issues

Brave New World1 essays

Brave New World1 essays The book that I read was Brave New World. It was written by Aldous Huxley. Huxley was born in England on July 26, 1894. He came to the States in 1937. Throughout his writing career he wrote many types of things. His works included novels, poetry, and essays.Huxley had established himself as a prestigious writer by the time that he was thirty.He also received the Award of Merit for his novel Island., from the American Academy of Arts and Letters. He died Nov. 22 1963. I want to give you some background about the book before I get into the theme.The book itself takes place in a futuristic London. The entire Western Europe is controlled by one man, the Ford. The Ford's name is Mustapha Mond. In this society all of the people are hatched. The idea of people Giving birth is repulsive as well as is the idea of anyone wanting to be alone. Every persons future is predetermined. They are made to fit a cast system And they can never break away from that cast. Some people are smart and well respected and others are looked at like they are the scum of the earth. The primary objective of This society is to be social. To have fun, and to have sex with no commitment. Dealing with problems is no problem for these people because of a drug called Soma. Soma is like a tranquilizer that puts you in a place that you want to be and has no side-effects. So they never have to face reality. The book is centered around four main Characters The Director of Hatcheries and Conditioning, a scientist named Lenina , another scientist Bernard and the Savage,John. The theme of the book is that people need to be looked as an individual with specific needs and concerns and feelings not that we should all be the same way all of the time The theme of the book starts with John. John is a young man that has lived his entire life on an Indian reservation. And has had no contact ...

Marvin v. Marvin Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Marvin v. Marvin - Case Study Example The case between Martin v Martin highlights the challenges that marriage couples face. The case was determined in 1976 with the outcome serving as reference point in the US because of the relevance. The case involved two individuals in a non-marital relationship enforced through oral agreement. The couples made several agreements concerning their economic and social status. According to the case, the couples lived and made significant wealth and resources jointly. They had an agreement to share the acquired property and other belongings equally upon dissolution of the union. In 1971, the defendant withdrew the support he accorded the wife and called for the dissolution of marriage. The complainant launched a suit to enforce the agreement that they entered into prior to their dissolution. The complainant told the court that they entered into an oral agreement to work and share the property equally upon dissolution of their relationship (Laskin & Niff, 2010). The court heard the case and determined that individuals in any form of marriage whether implied or express have the right to claim their share. The court found that the complainant’s issues were valid and subjected the defendant to fulfill the agreement. The court stated that couples in non-marital relationships have the right to launch legitimate claims for property based on express or implied marriage contracts. The case gave a clear direction that sought to ensure fairness and equality between couples upon marriage dissolution. Living together contracts involve gay and non-gay couples who form relationship are either formal or non-formal. These non-marital contracts pose several complications when it comes to sharing property upon dissolution of the marriage. The contracts threaten to erode the moral and cultural practices of various societies. As noted by Strong, DeVault & Cohen (2011) these marriages disobey the moral standards that

Performance Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Performance Management - Essay Example Assessment Center: Technique that uses interviews, tests, simulations, games, and observations to evaluate an individual's potential. My department's appraisal is based on the performance measurement system that uses graphic scales. This is one of the most popular performance appraisal systems. Typically the manager can choose one of the five degrees for each criterion. The selection of the criteria to be measured can be centered on subjective factors (such as initiative and dependability) and/or on objective factors (such as quality and quantity of work). Advantages of the Graphic Scales This kind of performance measurement is quick to develop It is very easy to administer since grading is easy. It can be used easily across a number of employees for comparison. Disadvantages of the Graphic scales There is not much depth in the assessment standards. There is a probability for a contrast effect, that is an average employee following an outstanding employee may be rated as poor, an ave rage person following after an employee with a poor rating may be graded excellent There might be a friendship bias, meaning a positive form of leniency where a manager rates an employees perform better than it actually is based on his personal relationship with him. A central tendency where the managers tend towards the middle of the rating scale. A positive/negative halo when the appraiser tends to rate performance either at one extreme or another. Positive/negative leniency when the manager seems to exaggerate the swing towards better or worse performance. Ambiguity in the interpretation of scales by the manager causes poor rating. Impact on employees The performance appraisal is conducted fairly and with an open mind often has a positive... There is a probability for a contrast effect, that is an average employee following an outstanding employee may be rated as poor, an average person following after an employee with a poor rating may be graded excellent When the appraisal is e xecuted fairly and squarely, the employee comes away happy with the rating he received. Mostly, better ratings are linked to rewards and incentives commonly the raise he is eligible for the next year and most employees look forward to it. It overall improves his morale and motivates him to better his performance and hence makes reaching his goals and objectives easier. Even in areas where he has not met expectations and received a low rating, a capable appraiser is able to create reassurance in the employee of future performance and growth. Often, the appraiser and the appraised know each other well due to working side by side on a daily basis. When the given rating does not appeal to the employee, it paves the way for a lot of tension between the employee and management.  Ã‚  

Fiber optics Lab Report Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Fiber optics - Lab Report Example Each of the strands is a tenth less as thick as the strand of a human hair and it is capable of carrying approximated ten million calls. The cables are able to carry information from one point to another using the optical technology. The technology has been applied in many companies of telecommunications to transmit various telephone signals, television signals of cables and various communications in the internet. The fiber optics is more advantageous compared to existing copper wire that results from lower level of attenuation and also interference. This occurs in various long distances and in high demand applications. However, there have been various challenges resulting from development of infrastructure in cities making it time consuming and expensive to install the fiber optics (MeÃŒ ndez and Morse 165). As a result, fiber optics has been primarily installed in long distances where it is possible to maximize their full capacity of transmission. This has resulted into a decreased price of installing the fiber optic

Causes And Minimization Of Soybean Flavour Via Enzymes

Causes And Minimization Of Soybean Flavour Via Enzymes Lipids, proteins, carbohydrates, as well as vitamins and minerals are main food ingredients that are responsible for flavour in vegetables. These compounds may give rise to volatile and non volatile compounds that give vegetable its characteristic odour and taste (Sessa, 1979). Soybean is very popular and unique in its ability to be cholesterol free and lactose free, and also because it provides good source of nutrients at low-cost such as proteins, minerals, vitamins and phytochemicals (biological active components derived from plants) and also is a source of oil and therefore it is classified as an oilseed and has a reputation of being natural and good for health (Martin et al, 2010). Soybean originated from Asia, was first cultivated in china and is most common in Asian countries and is grown by farmers since centuries. Soybean is a good source for providing useful protein especially in countries where people are protein deficient, or lack of proteins from animal source, or for th ose people that are lactose tolerant and cannot consume cows milk for them soymilk is available, which is made from soybean and is healthy and rich in protein. Soybean is used to produce many food products such as soymilk powders, flour, oil, soybean curd, chocolate, ice-cream, etc (Martin et al, 2010; Stephan et al, 2000). Although in many western countries acceptance of soybean has not been much successful due to its strong grassy/beany flavour which is unpleasant in taste and is unfavourable according to most consumers. Therefore, much research has been done to improve soybean flavour. According to many studies done on soybean flavour, lipid oxidation (lipoxygenase) an iron containing enzyme which is common in plants and animals, which undergoes Fe2+ to Fe 3+ transitions during per oxidation of fat catalyses the peroxidation of unsaturated fats to hydroperoxides is said to be responsible for the off flavour which breaks down during hydration, which will be further discussed in th is review. Causes of beany Flavour During cultivating soybean, it is found that it is beneficial to environment in terms of nitrogen and other minerals that benefit the soil by increasing carbon, nitrogen, phosphorous contents in soil. Unpleasant flavour such as beany /grassy flavour of soybean are generated from the lipids through lipoxygenase during the process of roasting, fermentation and germination, the lipoxygenase breaks down the oil into a number of chemicals including hexanal, and methanethiol and these chemicals result in off-flavours which are described as beany and grassy primarily in soybeans ( Suratman et al,2004; Wszelaki et al, 2005). Lipoxygenase in soybean seeds is present in the form of three isozymes ( Lox-I, Lox-II and Lox-III) (Kumar, et al, 2003). Soybean is an iron containg enzymes which catalyzes the oxidation of polyunsaturated fatty acids with cis,cis-1,4-pentadiene units to produce conjugated unsaturated fatty acid peroxides which are rensposible for the off flavour in soybeans as well as bitter taste (Li et al, 2008; Wang et al, 2008). It comprises of enzymes that are commonly found in soybean, can arise by either hydrolysis of fatty esters or oxidative fat corrosion. Naturally occurring enzymes such as lipid acyl-hydrolases, directly hydrolyze the fatty ester bonds of triglyceride s and phospholipids, producing free fatty acids. Lei and Boatright, 2005, revealed the importance of methanethiol to the characteristic odour of soybean which could give rise to a volatile sulphur compound; dimethul trisulfide is responsible for the off odour. Although the means for the effect of lipoxygenase on the formation of methanethiol is not well known, but is thought to be due to release of the free radicals formed during oxidation of polyunsaturated fatty acids. Methionine residues in soy protein products are aggregated by such free radicals, resulting in the formation of methionine sulfoxide which generates methanethiol as a final product as proposed by Lei et al 2005.Therefore, the data from current studies suggest that lipoxygenase not only catalyzes the oxidation of polyunsaturated fatty acids, resulting in the formation of volatile aldehydes, ketones, and alcohols, but also promotes formation of methanethiol (Lozano et al, 2007). Flavours developed depend on the composition of the fat with short chain fatty acids to C 10 having particularly disagreeable odours flavours and those above C1O possessing waxy or, at alkaline pH, soapy flavours. Hydrolytic fat corrosion is not much important in terms of flavour formation when compared with flavours from oxidative deterioration of free fatty acids. Strong soybean-like flavours have been found in model systems consisting of hydroperoxides generated by the oxidative action of soy lipoxygenase on pure linoleic and linolenic acid. Volatile Compounds produced contribute to the grassy and beany flavours, while non volatile compounds cause bitter and astringency. In addition, scientists have found that lipid hydroperoxides produced by Oxidation readily form in soybean seeds when compared with other vegetables. Once formed, hydroperoxides undergo decomposition to both volatile and non volatile compounds. Many volatile Compounds generated either by the action of enzymes or by autoxidation of polyunsaturated lipid. A volatile synthetic compound, 2(l-pentenyl) furan also was found to contribute to the beany and grassy notes of soybean oil. It was hypothesized to arise from autoxidation of linolenic acid. According to Zhou et al, 2000, 2-pentyl pyridine (2-pp) has the largest flavour value of any other flavour volatiles found in soybean products. While volatile compound contribute to beany flavour, non-volatile oxygenated fatty acids impart a bitter taste to soybeans and dried peas. For example, trihydroxy fatty acids generated by the action of soy lipoxygenases on linoleic acid is responsible for the bitter tastes but due to its low concentration it is unlikely to be the main cause off odour (Stephan et al 2000) . According to many studies peroxides, lipoxygenase, and phospholipids are the main cause of off odour in soybean and many studies show that pH and temperature may also have influence on the flavour impact causing undesirable taste. According to Iassonova, removing lipoxygenase (LOX) isozymes can reduces the amounts of volatile off-flavor compounds in soybeans and soy products drastically, but are not completely eliminated. The present work presents evidence that lipoxygenase-null (LOX-null) soybeans contain a LOX-like enzyme that is responsible for the offflavors in LOX-null soybeans. Volatiles production in triple LOX-null soybeans was terminated by heat treatment, which suggests an enzymatic cause to the off-flavors. The source is LOX-like in that the volatile compounds produced are similar to LOX-generated products of polyunsaturated fatty acids. Oxygen was consumed when a LOX-null protein solution was incubated with crude soybean oil suggesting that the enzyme catalyzed oxygen con suming reactions. The generation of flavour compounds was inhibited by the typical LOX inhibitors propyl gallate and nordihydroguaiaretic acid (NDGA). The enzyme appears to be more active with phosphatidylcholine than with other lipid substrates. The cause of the off-flavors in LOX-null beans appears to have enzyme-like characteristics (Iassonova et al, 2009). Strategies adapted to reduce beany flavour Although soy is rich in its nutritional value, it has not been much popular due to its beany unpleasant flavour; therefore many methods have been considered in order to get rid of this lipid derived beany off flavour in soybean which is due to lipoxygenase activity. Soybean proteins can be readily be modified by chemical, physical and enzymatic treatments changes the functional properties of the protein such as leading to flavour change. Methods such as heat treatment, pH adjustment, hydrolysis, enzyme treatment, ingredients addition, thermal modification, and breeding of soybean with low beany flavours have been used to eliminate/ reduce unpleasant beany flavour of soybean (Heywood et al, 2002; Suratman et al, 2004). According to Heywood et al, 2002, value enhanced soybeans (genetic modified/breed) have transformed fatty acid/ protein composition which means volatile compounds are removed that cause unpleasant beany flavour. According to Iassonova et al, 2009; removing lipoxygenase (LOX) isozymes can reduces the amounts of volatile off-flavor compounds in soybeans and soy products drastically, but are not completely eliminated. Temperature also has significant effect on soybean protein where significant decrease in unpleasant flavour compound was observed at lower temperature around 5.5 C (lower than room temperature). In many studies it was investigated that at higher temperatures the methanethiol increased and vice versa (Heywood et al, 2002). Also heating increases the digestibility of soy protein. Similar results were reported by Rehman et al, 2007, according to him soymilk prepared by heating soybean grains at least 15min at 100 C soaking in water at pH 8, (soybean water extract) improved the flavour and taste to some extent but did not completely eliminate the unfavourable flavour, it only had less beany flavour and more protein solubility and also improved colour consistency. Similarly Machado et al, 2008 reported that the anti-nutrients in soybean such as Kunitz (protease inhibitor that reduces the nutrient level of soybean) can be inactivated by heat treatments (wet) or biochemical treatments or ei ther by selecting soybean varieties (could be modified/ genetically grown) that lack these protease inhibitors along with heat treatment such as wet heat rather than dry heat. Soybean was heat treated for 15 minutes ( as excess heat could completely denature the protein i.e. decrease the solubility and nutrition value) and as a result the trypsin inhibitors (which was seen to be dependent on moisture level) were inactivated without affecting the quality of soy protein the in terms of nutrition value. Thermal treatment the most common old method used to modify soy bean flavour without affecting the nutritional value. This treatment is used to eliminate lipoxygenase activity in soybean which produces volatile compounds responsible for off odour. Enzyme modification are conducted to eliminate undesired flavours (beany) caused by hexanal. Alpha-tocopherol and isoflavones, both naturally occur in soybeans. Are antioxidants which inhibit enzymic oxidation of linoleate with lipoxygenases . Methods are developed to free naturally occurring antioxidants of enzyme inhibitors. Cysteins under aerobic conditions interacts with the catalytic site of lipoxygenase and induces irreversible inactivation of the enzyme. Cysteine reacting with linoleic acid prevents formation of volatile flavour compounds. In line with Li et al, 2008, and Wang et al, 2008, although the thermal treatment inactivates effectively soybean lipoxygenase (LOX), it denatures soybean proteins, results in amino acid degradatio n and other deteriorative reactions. Although there are concerns over the affects of flavours, texture, colours, vitamins and nutrients by thermal treatment, therefore, inactivation of soybean LOX by non-thermal treatment is aimed in order to avoid quality loss of soymilk by thermal processing and new techniques are introduced such as high pressure techniques for better quality and taste. Pulsed electric fields (PEF) a non-thermal food preservation method and become increasingly a promising option to thermal pasteurization. In comparison with traditional thermal pasteurization, PEF dramatically lead to inactivation of LOX activity and denature of enzymes in soymilk PEF not only can kill microorganisms and inactivate enzymes, but maintains taste, colour, texture, vitamins, and nutrients, of foods. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry was used to determine the content of methanethiol in soybean which occurred in every sample of soybean tested (Lei et al, 2005) which gives out unpleasant odour. It also was observed that if pH levels were increased the amount of methanehtiol also increased due to breakdown of methionine. Cyclodextrin, which masks beany flavour molecules by reducing or changes the food flavour overall have been used to eliminate the molecules responsible for the off flavours in soybean. Hexanal is reported to be the main sources of beany flavour have been used to inactivate soybean lipoxygenase activity but it is found that it lowers the protein solubility. Another method is soaking soybean in ethyl alcohol and PH adjustment. Off-flavour is only observed when the soybean cells are borkendown/ or during cooking where many chemicals (e.g. linoleic acid; ketones, aldehydes, and alcohol) are released which give off odour (Rehman et al, 2007). According to Stephan et a l, 2000 saturated free fatty acids (FFAs) did not produce any bitterness in the concentrations investigated, and were able to influence the bitter taste of emulsions essentially even if they are present in concentrations that are only slightly above their thresholds. Fig.1.Improved soybean products (Bay, 2006) Various methods have been employed to inhibit lipoxygenase. Enzyme inactivation by blanching whole soybeans before grinding of soaked soybeans prevents formation of oxidized flavour in the production of bland-flavoured soy milk. Heat inactivation of lipoxygenase by extrusion cooking yields full-fat flour with improved odour, flavour, and stability. Further low pH inhibits lipoxygenase in soybeans and other legumes. Thereby minimizing the formation of volatile compounds for example flavourless tasting slurries free of lipoxygenase- induced off-flavours and odours were produced by grinding and fractionating raw soybeans under pH 3.8 for enzyme inactivation with saturated monohydric alcohols. Flavour of soy flour should be improved with alcohol or heat treatments. Alteration of flavour causing aldehydes to alcohols by means of an enzyme alcohol dehydrogenase could reduce flavour because alcohols generally have higher flavour thresholds than corresponding aldehydes. .Alcohols produced by this reaction can act as enzyme inhibitors in the meals, or they can be more readily extracted from meals unlike aldehydes because alcohols do not bind to proteins .Present processes for preparing soyflour, concentrate, and isolates generally involve solvent extraction, aqueous extraction, drying, and toasting. Products with improved flavours through these procedures are commercially available. One current method is used to achieve soybean with acceptable flavour, better quality, and reducing any undesirable characteristics. (fig.1.).In this method soybean is mixed in an heated aqueous salt solution to form a mixture, heating leads to deactivation of enzymes that are responsible for beany flavour. This improved misture is further processed (drying, roasting, powdering, and flavouring) so can be used in a variety of food products. Conclusion Although soybean milk is recognized as a nutritious beverage, it contains much lower calcium than cows milk. To eradicate the off flavour, scientists throughout the world have been in an attempt to find soybeans that lacked lipoxygenase enzymes thought processes such as mutation, hybridization and selection they were able to find few that few of the enzymes. These soybeans are now being used in soymilk production and other food products and no longer have the off flavour (beany flavour). Therefore, according to Rehman et al, 2007 soybean in water at pH8 showed to have less beany flavour and more protein solubility, similarly according to Wang et al 2008 high pressure was found be effective in slightly reducing off flavour by deactivating lipoxygenase in soy products such as milk and gave improved taste and flavour , these results were also in line with the finding with Li et al, 2008 who studied the inactivation of soybean lipoxygenase due to thermal treatment but is shown to affect the quality of food and similarly results reported by Wang et al, 2008. Although there are concerns about reduction in protein content or health affect when soybean is modified in order to eliminate the unacceptable odour, since consumers concern has always been on quality, appearance, taste, smell, and texture. According to Lei and Boatright, 2005 little is known about factors that influence occurrence of methanethiol in soy products.

Essay --

The original synthesis did not go to completion; starting materials remained unreacted. This was confirmed when the purified product was isolated and determined to not be pure (Figure 7). Increasing the amount of solvent (DMF), obtaining a crude HNMR spectrum after 3 hours of the reaction to monitor reaction progress, increasing the reaction length with respect to the findings of the crude HNMR spectrum, obtaining a pH of 2-3 during the acidification (in order to obtain only the carboxylic acid product instead of a mixture with the carboxylate salt) and refining the recrystallization method, are all some of the adjustments to the experimental parameters. When the reaction parameters were changed to 6 hours and the acidified product had a pH of 2-3, a 20% yield of a white, flaky solid of the 4-4 coupling product was obtained. When the reaction parameters were changed to 18 hours, a 32% yield was obtained. However, a significant amount of decarboxylated byproduct was formed. A re crystallization procedure was developed to isolate the pure 4-4 coupled product (See Methods). An alternate synthetic pathway was developed due to the low percent yield and high levels of undesired side products of the reaction. Such characteristics are not ideal for a key starting material in a long synthetic series.Botulinum neurotoxins (BoNTs) are poisons that infect humans and are known to cause the human disease botulism 1,2,3,4,5. Having an LD50 of 1.0ng/kg body weight for humans, this makes the botulinum neurotoxin one of the most toxic known poisons still active today. BoNTs are listed as a category A bio threat agent by the United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 1,2,3,4,5. Currently, there is no cure or effective treatme... ... be the most advantageous line of study 1,2,3,4,5. Unlike vaccines, chemically stable small molecules would remain viable for many years due to the dramatically larger half-lives. A large number of peptide-based inhibitors have been explored, but due to their short in vivo lifetimes, they make a poor candidate for new drugs 2. Broad spectrum BoNT inhibitors have been largely attempted to develop, but have rarely been met with success. Therefore, shifting the focus to develop serotype specific inhibitors have been the new focus in combatting botulinum neurotoxins. The overall goal has been modified to develop small, cell-permeable, low molecular weight, non peptidic drug like molecules capable of inhibiting BoNT/A, the deadliest of the seven serotypes. In order to achieve this, small molecule drug development is aimed at inhibiting the LC activity of BoNT/A 5.

Rebuilding Employee Morale Essay

Layoffs and work-force reductions have a big impact on both those who lose their jobs and those who remain. Employees who remain after a work-force reduction may be affected for weeks or months afterwards. They may feel overwhelmed, have a hard time focusing on work, or experience low morale. This may be a stressful time for you as well. As a manager you not only have to make the transitions yourself, but you’re also counted on to help steer your team through the changes. As a manager, it’s important to be aware of what employees are feeling and to offer support in ways that can help your team get through this difficult and challenging period. And it’s important to recognize how the changes affect you as well. Common feelings employees may have Several employees, or hundreds of employees, may have lost their jobs at your company. Whatever the size of the work-force reduction, it’s likely that many well-liked people who were doing good work will be leaving the company and that the employees who remain are sad and are grieving for co-workers who were let go. The remaining employees may also be fearful about the security of their own jobs or how their roles might change. Employees may experience some or all of the following emotions, all of which can affect productivity, commitment, and morale: †¢ Sadness. †¢ Anger. †¢ Guilt. †¢ Fear and anxiety. Many may wonder, â€Å"Am I the next to go?† †¢ Envy of those who are leaving. Employees may feel that those who were laid off are moving on to new opportunities while they are â€Å"stuck at the same old job.† †¢ Apathy. They may find it hard to concentrate or get back to work. †¢ Loss of trust in the organization. Employees may lose trust in upper management’s messages and mission and may not feel that the company cares. †¢ Overwhelmed. People may feel overloaded and worried about how their workload will change. 57114-1008 2 Rebuilding Employee Morale Following a Layoff Helping employees cope A layoff or downsizing is a business decision. But before employees who remain can move on and begin working productively again, it’s important to deal with the emotional side of the job cuts and their impact on people’s lives. †¢ Hold an initial meeting with employees staying on your team on the day of the downsizing announcement. Have an open and honest discussion with them about the job cuts and why they took place and how they will help keep your organization moving forward. Employees need to know why the cuts happened and what the organization is doing to avoid more job cuts. Talk about the layoffs in terms of job functions and the business. Do not discuss specifics or specific individuals. Expect this to be a time of deep emotion, confusion, and anxiety for your employees. †¢ Hold a â€Å"jump-start† meeting. A work-force reduction can change the way your team functions. In the days following the announcement, plan and hold a jumpstart meeting to get people focused on what matters. At the meeting: – Review the organization’s goals, strategy, and new direction. Enlist your team’s support in finding ways to meet those goals. – Clarify the reasons for the change. Identify and describe ways that individual employees may have to shift their attention. – Explain fully the expected results of the team’s efforts, linking those results to the overall business goals of the organization. – Identify those things the team and individuals are already doing well that support the new direction or business strategy. Highlight what may change. – Discuss needs and develop concrete action plans for short- and long-term periods. – Provide training if employees will be asked to take on new work or functions. †¢ Give employees continued opportunities to talk about their feelings. Encourage them to voice their fears, questions, complaints, and concerns. Hold meetings. You can do this both one-on-one with employees and as a group. Have drop-in sessions. These will be helpful for employees and for you as a manager. Remember that when people are allowed to express their feelings they are better able to adjust and move on. Continue to have these discussions for as long as they seem productive. Watch that employees don’t get stuck or caught up in too much negativity. Use coaching skills to help them accept the change and move on. †¢ Be honest with employees and keep lines of communication open. The more honest and straightforward you are, the more quickly you’ll rebuild trust on your team. During times of major change, information is often incomplete. No manager has all the answers. If an employee asks a question about the reorganization that you are not in a position to answer, don’t be afraid to say, â€Å"I don’t have the answer to 3 Rebuilding Employee Morale Following a Layoff that question.† If possible, commit to finding answers and information within a fixed period of time and â€Å"close the loop† with the employee who asked the question. If relevant, share the information with everyone on the team. Remind employees that in times of flux even some of the updated information will change but that you will keep them as up to date as you can when this happens. †¢ Lead by example. Take a close look at your own attitudes and behavior and how you are responding to the workplace change. Positive, sincere, and communicative managers who demonstrate strong leadership qualities while acknowledging the difficulty and pain of the layoff are typically able to get their staff back on track during times of adversity and challenge. †¢ Offer resources to help employees reduce feelings of stress. Make sure members of your team are aware of the resources available to them to help reduce feelings of stress, including the employee assistance program (EAP) or the program that provided this publication. †¢ Recognize that, initially, employees may be so absorbed with the reorganization that they get less work done than usual. During times of major change, especially in the period right after the change, it’s common for people to look out for themselves. Employees may spend increased amounts of time on personal activities like phone calls and Internet use. By keeping employees actively engaged in constructive job-related tasks with a direct value to the business, anxiety can be kept in check and employees will be more focused on what matters. It’s important to take action to rebuild the team and help employees get back up to speed and move forward. Ways to rebuild trust and morale It can take months for employees to adjust to a major organizational change and to new systems and ways of doing things. It’s important to keep an eye on employee morale during this transitional period. Here are some ways to rebuild trust and morale on your team during this time: †¢ Spend extra time with your team and with individual employees. In times of stress managers can be tempted to spend more time in their offices away from their anxious employees, but this is just the time your employees need you to be more visible and accessible than usual. †¢ Communicate openly and often about company strategies and goals. Share information. Clarify goals. Be honest in your communications. If more change is coming, share as much as you’re able to with employees. It’s critical to check with upperlevel managers on what messages to communicate to employees. Different messages coming from managers across departments will result in mixed messages and rumors. Encourage employees to share any rumors they hear with you and address each one as quickly as you can. 4 Rebuilding Employee Morale Following a Layoff †¢ Talk about changes within the organization and how these may affect the work and your group. Talk about how the work will change as a result of the reorganization. Let everyone know that plans or tasks may change and that this is normal during times of transition. If work expectations for the department or individuals have changed, communicate this as soon as possible. Be clear and concise about new job duties and responsibilities. Remember to give frequent updates. This helps employees deal with feelings of uncertainty and confusion. †¢ Avoid complaining about the organization or telling employees your woes. Managers sometimes do this to reduce feelings of guilt — they want employees to feel that they are suffering, too. But a manager who complains to employees only loses respect and creates more anxiety among employees. Speak with other managers you trust about your feelings and concerns and to get more ideas of what steps you can take to help rebuild your team. Take very good care of yourself during this time as many managers experience additional stress as they guide their teams through challenging times. †¢ Use team-building exercises to renew relationships and commitments to goals. Work on a group or team project together. You might order pizza or bagels when you do. Offer a seminar on dealing with workplace change. Work hard to be sure everyone understands his or her role on the team and how group efforts contribute to the larger business goals. †¢ Be respectful of the people who have been laid off. Avoid comments like â€Å"He wasn’t such a great employee anyway.† Focus on the positive attributes of employees who have left. Express regret and make sure your team knows that you wish them well. This will show those who are staying that the organization treats people with respect and dignity. Your employees will assume that if they were to be laid off, you would talk about them the same way you talk about former em ployees. †¢ Help employees see the opportunities that change can bring. The reorganization may mean that people will have the opportunity to learn new skills or to take on new responsibilities. †¢ Recognize and reward good work and continued commitment. Let employees know that you appreciate everyone pulling together to do their part in meeting the company’s goals. It’s more important than ever at this time to reward employees who are staying — for meeting goals and milestones and for steady, dependable effort. Here are some ways to offer rewards: – through company recognition or incentive programs – by giving public recognition at a meeting – by sending an e-mail to upper management applauding an employee’s efforts and spelling out what those efforts were and how they contributed to the company’s goals – by using bulletin boards to call attention to someone’s good efforts 5 Rebuilding Employee Morale Following a Layoff Keep in mind that it takes time for people to let go of old ways, adapt to new ones, and recommit to the organization. The more proactive you are in helping employees through this transition, the more everyone will be able to adjust, move on, renew their enthusiasm, and confirm their commitment to the company. Written with the help of Elizabeth Bakken, B.A., M.A. Ms. Bakken has a certificate in organizational development and an extensive background in the fields of human resource development and career coaching. She writes a column, CareerWise, on executive career issues for the Rochester Business Journal.  © 2001, 2008 Ceridian Corporation. All rights reserved. 102908

A Candidate for Murder Essay Essays

A Candidate for Murder Essay Essays A Candidate for Murder Essay Essay A Candidate for Murder Essay Essay Murder is a remarkable page turner by Joan Lowery Nixon. The book is fictional and suspenseful, it has a length of two hundred ten pages and was published by Dell Publishing in 1991. The story seemed to start a little slow but, It sped up soon after the first chapter. It was a quick read and it kept me on my toes, always curious about what was going to happen next. A Candidate For Murder Is about a girl (Cary) whose father (Charles) Is running for the Governor of Texas. While at a party, Cary overhears a conversation led between two men. They notice that she heard some of the crucial Information and now they do everything In their power to keep her from telling anyone. Even If that means they have to hurt her Or even kill her. Onions goal and topic of this book was to keep the reader entertained, and she definitely stayed on topic. The most Important and Interesting part of the book was chapters 15 through 19. Theyre full of the action-filled mammals pieces needed to put this puzzle of a story together. I do believe that this novel met the goals of the author. It gave me plenty of entertainment, and kept me busy. The book is an astonishing and powerful read from cover to cover. The ending could have been a little longer but, I loved all the twists and turns the story had. I would recommend this to anyone, it will capture your mind and take you on an adventure; as if you were in the story. This is easily one of the best pieces Ive ever read, Joan Lowery Nixon is the elite of all authors. Her adventures and persona in her writing makes you want to buy all of her books and read every single one of them.

Interesting Facts About US Housing

Interesting Facts About US Housing About 7.2 million homeowners took out home equity lines of credit in 2003, up 12 percent from 2001 when 6.4 million such credit lines were established. Thats just one of the interesting facts and statistics reported in the latest edition of the American Housing Survey (AHS) [pdf], sponsored by the Department of Housing and Urban Development. Now entering its fourth decade of publication, the AHS provides information on a variety of topics, including home ownership, characteristics of homes and their owners, housing costs, vacation homes, gated communities and people’s views of their neighborhoods. Some more highlights from the latest AHS: About 3.8 million homeowners had lump-sum home equity mortgages, down nearly 20 percent from 2001, when there were 4.7 million such loans.Homeowners occupied more than 72 million homes. Overall, the nation had about 106 million occupied housing units.Renters occupied 33.6 million housing units.The nation’s median mortgage interest rate was 6.7 percent, down from 7.5 percent in 2001.The median value of owner-occupied homes was $140,000.Between 2001 and 2003, the number of owner-occupied units with four or more bedrooms increased by about 1 million to 18.7 million.There were 3 million owner-occupied homes in planned gated communities.The vacancy rate for rental housing units was 9.6 percent, up from 7.8 percent in 2001.On a scale of 1-to-10, with 10 being the best, 3-in-4 homeowners rated their neighborhood an 8 or higher.

Maldoror by Comte de Lautreamont Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Maldoror by Comte de Lautreamont - Essay Example He himself shifts into various animal forms and sees people do the same. He wants people to embrace the base, vile animal within themselves in order so that they will become evil too. Animals live by their appetites, they have no higher reason or calling. Maldoror wishes to see humanity reduced to this base form. He transfers into animal form to escape his disgust for humanity. It is easy to sense the poet's own disgust with humanity. He clearly is unhappy with human hypocrisies and sees in the animal kingdom something that is purer or freer of guile. He sees an insect as a beautiful thing, not as something disgusting. This is worthy of note. Few works in the history of literature have made as much of an impression as this one. Its non-narrative structure and powerful imagery influenced a generation of surrealists. But it also contains a larger, almost theological message: We should value the distinction between us and animals.

Types of Newspapers Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Types of Newspapers - Essay Example There are different types of newspapers and they can be classified in different ways. Classification based on frequency The frequency of the newspaper being published is one of the most common ways of classifying the newspaper. Based on the frequency of its publications newspapers can be classified into: Daily Newspapers This is the most common type of newspapers. Daily newspapers are published everyday and cover important news from the previous day. It also carries information regarding the current day. Daily newspapers are the most circulated and read in the whole world. Normally it is published aiming to reach the reader everyday morning. The target audience of a daily newspaper is vas. They target every market segments which includes all demographic profile. But there are also afternoon and evening newspapers that carry breaking news from the current day and are aimed at office workers and commuters (Ric Publications, 1993). Examples of daily newspapers are New York Times, New Yo rk Post, Washington Post, etc. Bi-Weekly Newspapers Bi-Weekly newspapers are published twice a week and can be general or content specific newspaper. These papers in most cases interpret or put forward the news in a different way. They do an in-depth coverage of general news when compared to daily newspapers and style of reporting is also different. The target audience may vary depending on what the paper is covering. Bi-weekly papers can be community or a group specific newspaper which only concentrate on the news related to the community or the group. The Dartmouth Review is an example of a bi-weekly newspaper which is published twice a week at Dartmouth College. It concentrates on news related to the college. The Jewish Journal is another example of a bi-weekly newspaper which is a community sponsored newspaper and covers news related to the Jewish community. Weekly Newspaper Weekly newspapers are published once in a week. These have smaller circulation than daily newspapers. The y mainly cover local news and community based news. They are usually based and limited smaller areas such as towns and cities. There are very less national level weekly newspapers. They adopt a niche strategy and target a specific market. For example a weekly newspaper may target only sports, advertising (free ads), etc. Examples of weekly newspapers are Florida weekly, Honolulu Weekly, etc. Classification based on the news covered Newspapers can also be classified based on the news that they cover. They can be mainly classified into: National Newspapers National newspaper is one which circulates through out the country. Each country has newspapers that have their presence in the entire country. They mainly cover the national news and the international news. The .local news is also covered but not in detail. News of national importance is given primary importance and makes up for the majority of the news covered. The New York Times and The Wall Street Journal are examples of nationa l newspapers. International Newspapers There are not many newspapers that can be categorised as international newspapers. To be an international newspaper the paper must concentrate primarily on international news which not many newspapers do. International Herald Tribune is one of the newspapers that can be categorised. Also there are some national newspapers who release the international editions of their papers. Regional/local Newspapers Regional or local newspapers target regional news

Turkey Syria Relations Since 1998 Research Paper

Turkey Syria Relations Since 1998 - Research Paper Example The relation in general remained undulating with both countries involved in sabotage and terror activities. The base of this relation was laid with the joining of Hatay Province from Syria to Turkey after referendum under the French mandate in 1939 (Federal Research Division 120). It caused serious anger and revolt in Syrians and this hatred lead to deterioration of relations after the Syrian independence. The relations are made more complicated with each representing different blocks of Islamic sects; Sunni and Shia blocks. The Arabs along with Turkey consist of Sunni majority whereas; Iran and Syria represent the Shia block. Each block is backed by group of countries and strong ties among people are maintained with Islam being the pillar. The relations, however, took new turn in 1998 and a limited period of golden era soon followed. 2. Adana Agreement Adana Agreement was signed in October 1998 and it gave way to efforts for increased cooperation and dialogue among the two countries (Khalilzad, Lesser, and Larrabee 33). Under this agreement, security meetings, hotline, exchange of high level security officials as well as diplomatic missions started. The events that lead to this agreement however, must be discussed to give perspective and insight into current state. 2.1 PKK / Kurdish Nationalist Party Kurds are mainly in the eastern part of Turkey, northern part of Syria and Iraq as well. The total Kurdish population amounts to 22.6 million (Aras 93). They are regarded as ethnic minority but started separatist movement against Turkey in the 1970s. Kemal Ataturk gave very strong fundamentals on which Turkey nationalism is based on. Turks are therefore, extremely rigid on any change in these fundamentals which include one nationality, language and exclusion of religion from governance. These principles by Kemal Ataturk led to the exclusion of Kurds from Turkish society (Sayyid 66). Their language not being Turkish and refusal to abide by Turkish laws for seculari sm lead to evolution of Kurdish opposition groups and hence the formation of PKK. Kurds are known as the largest ethnic minority and they demand separate land to practice their language, traditions and customs. Kurdish language was banned from schools in Turkey and checks were imposed on public use of this language. Bans were even imposed to restrict distribution of Kurdish songs by 1983 (Yildiz and Breau 11). PKK under these circumstances gained attention among Kurds in Syria and Iraq as well. The movement slowly gained momentum and attacks against Turkish military and state security departments started. Kurdish identity was accepted to some extend in 1991 under Prime Minister Turgut Ozal’s government. The ban on Kurdish language was removed, but its wide public use was still restricted (Eickelman and Anderson 192). 2.2 Syrian Support for PKK The shared border area between the two countries is mainly Kurdish majority area. This shared area provided a buffer for the Syrian go vernemnt to support Kurdish movement. Safe havens were provided to Kurdish chain of command along with military support including training camps in the 80s and 90s (Larrabee 14). The issue was recognised by Syria as an opportunity to politicise and form basis to start terror activities agaisnt Turkey. Military support provided to Kurds escalated the issue and isolated attacks on Turkish Military and state security increased particularly in this Kurd majority area. 2.3 Syrian Double Role Security

Investigation to determine the viscosity of glycerol Essay Example for Free

Investigation to determine the viscosity of glycerol Essay This document reports on an experiment that examined the relationship between temperature and viscosity. The terminal velocity and up-thrust experienced by a sphere of fixed weight and radius was calculated by dropping it into a measuring cylinder filled with glycerol heated to different temperatures. Using Stokes Law viscosity corresponding to each temperature level was worked out. This generated a range of data points with viscosity corresponding to each temperature level. These data points were statistically analysed. The results corresponded to those indicated by theory i. e. temperature and viscosity are inversely related; as temperature increased viscosity decreased. This report is in five sections. The first details the plan and the science on which the experiment is based. The second describes implementation while the third analyses the results. The fourth section evaluates the both the experiment and its results. The fifth concludes. 1 Plan 1. 1 The Question Is viscosity affected by temperature? When temperature increases does viscosity decrease or increase and if it does are the changes systematic or random? These are the questions I investigate in this experiment. 1. 2 Key Concepts Archimedes principle A body immersed in a fluid (totally or partially) experiences an upthrust (i. e. an apparent loss of weight) which is equal to the weight of fluid displaced. 1Ships dont sink in water because of upthrust. Upthrust is also the cause for weight loss when a body is partially or wholly immersed in a fluid. Viscosity Viscosity is the virtue by which a fluid offers a resistance to the motion through it of any solid body. 2 The theory of viscosity is almost identical to the theory of friction between two solids, just that viscosity is the term used for fluids. Viscosity is basically the resistance between the particles within a fluid. In a solid molecules are tightly packed i. e. there is a strong intermolecular force. Therefore when you move a solid, it moves as a whole as all the particles move together. In a fluid this is not the case. This is because due to lower intermolecular force the particles move at different velocities in relation to each other. This feature can be understood by discussing what happens when pouring a jug of water into a glass. In liquids the molecules flow in layers. See the right water flowing from a jug, it looks simple, but in reality it is quite complex. Actually only the top layer of water is flowing, the bottom layer is still. This is explained with the help of the diagram on the left. The red line is the upper layer of water in the jug which flows in the glass, when this layer has flown into the glass the maroon layer starts flowing and the finally the black layer. This is because the black layer is closest to the solid (which in this case is the jug); the resistance offered by the solid is greater than the resistance offered by the layers of the liquid. This is because the number of molecules that make contact between the solid and the liquid layer are more than those that make contact between the liquid and liquid layer. The number of molecules that have contact between the liquid layer and air is the least. Hydrogen Bonding Unusually strong dipole-dipole attractions that occur among molecules in which hydrogen is bonded to a highly electronegative atom. 3 Hydrogen bonding is a much stronger variant of Van Der Waals Forces. This strong bonding causes great friction between the layers of liquid and therefore gives glycerol its property of high viscosity. Glycerol has a high viscosity as opposed to other alcohols because, it has three -OH functional groups attached to it. Therefore more hydrogen bonds are formed, thus increasing the attraction between two neighbouring molecules (greater bond strength). Thus unlike alcohols that are volatile, glycerol is not only non-volatile, but is also very thick and viscous. Stokes Law Stokes Law plays an important part in understanding the motion of a solid (in his experiment he used a sphere) through liquids. Stokes law states that when a body is under free fall in a tube containing a liquid of infinite length there is a point when there is no more acceleration in the body and the body reaches terminal velocity. Stoke further went on to say that this was due to the viscous forces acting within the liquid. The layers of the liquid in contact with the solid start moving with the velocity of the solid particle whereas the layers far away from the body remain at rest. The viscous forces being frictional forces act against the acceleration of the body and therefore there is a point when the viscous forces equal the resultant force driving the body. This is when the body reaches its terminal velocity.

A Character Analysis of Charlie in Fitzgeralds Babylon Revisited :: Babylon Revisited Essays

A Character Analysis of Charlie in Fitzgerald's Babylon Revisited In considering Charlie Wales plight in Fitzgerald's "Babylon Revisited," I believe Charlie is a victim of his own success. As a successful businessman two times over he has burned many bridges behind him and for his well intentions he is blind to that continued fallacy. He does not seem to realize that the success he enjoys now is the envy that brought about Marion and Lincoln's contempt prior to Helen's death. I see Charlie attempting desperately to act out of character. Adept at business he has shown ability, humility and perseverance. However, he seems to be out of touch with the manifested feelings of others his path has crossed. I do believe Charlie is not truly ready for parenthood. It appears he is fighting a demon, longing for a piece of his life that was lost in his past. Motivated by guilt I believe he is substituting materialism for love believing money buys happiness. He would substitute a governess for parenting for he realizes his business ventures will not lend time to child rearing. We can all sympathize with Charlie on the surface, we have all made mistakes that we have to live with. Charlie is attempting to move forward with his life and erase the mistakes of his past. The ghosts of his past torment him repeatedly throughout the story, his child's guardians despise him and his old friends do not understand him. Duncan Schaffer and Lorraine Quarrles represent all that wrong with Charlie's life. Charlie attempts to steam forward and like a anchor they keep him moored in place. I can not truly sympathize with Charlie though there is a sense of empathy within me. I sense that with Lincoln Peters also.

Demarcation in Philosophy of Science Essay

The demarcation problem in the philosophy of science is about how to distinguish between science and nonscience, and more specifically, between science and pseudoscience (a theory or method doubtfully or mistakenly held to be scientific). The debate continues after over a century of dialogue among philosophers of science and scientists in various fields, and despite broad agreement on the basics of scientific method. The demarcation problem is the philosophical problem of determining what types of hypotheses should be considered scientific and what types should be considered pseudoscientific or non-scientific. It also concerns itself with the ongoing struggle between science and religion, in particular the question about which elements of religious doctrine can and should be subjected to scientific scrutiny. This is one of the central topics of the philosophy of science, and it has never been fully resolved. The Purpose of Demarcation Demarcations of science from pseudoscience can be made for both theoretical and practical reasons. From a theoretical point of view, the demarcation issue is an illuminating perspective that contributes to the philosophy of science. From a practical point of view, the distinction is important for decision guidance in both private and public life. Since science is our most reliable source of knowledge in a wide variety of areas, we need to distinguish scientific knowledge from its look-alikes. Due to the high status of science in present-day society, attempts to exaggerate the scientific status of various claims, teachings, and products are common enough to make the demarcation issue pressing in many areas. The demarcation issue is therefore important in many practical applications such as the following: Healthcare: Medical science develops and evaluates treatments according to evidence of their efficiency. Pseudoscientific activities in this area give rise to inefficient and sometimes dangerous interventions. Healthcare providers, insurers, government authorities and – most importantly – patients need guidance on how to distinguish between medical science and medical pseudoscience. Expert testimony: It is essential for the rule of law that courts get the facts right. The reliability of different types of evidence must be correctly determined, and expert testimony must be based on the best available knowledge. Sometimes it is in the interest of litigants to present non-scientific claims as solid science. Therefore courts must be able to distinguish between science and pseudoscience. Environmental policies: In order to be on the safe side against potential disasters it may be legitimate to take preventive measures when there is valid but yet insufficient evidence of an environmental hazard. This must be distinguished from taking measures against an alleged hazard for which there is no valid evidence at all. Therefore, decision-makers in environmental policy must be able to distinguish between scientific and pseudoscientific claims. Science education: The promoters of some pseudosciences (notably creationism) try to introduce their teachings on school curricula. Teachers and school authorities need to have clear criteria of inclusion that protect students against unreliable and disproved teachings Ancient Greek Science An early attempt at demarcation can be seen in the efforts of Greek natural philosophers and medical practitioners to distinguish their methods and their accounts of nature from the mythological or mystical accounts of their predecessors and contemporaries. Medical writers in the Hippocratic tradition maintained that their discussions were based on necessary demonstrations, a theme developed by Aristotle in his â€Å"Posterior Analytics†. One element of this polemic (passionate argument) for science was an insistence on a clear and definite presentation of arguments, rejecting the imagery, analogy, and myth of the old wisdom. Aristotle described at length what was involved in having scientific knowledge of something. To be scientific, he said, one must deal with causes, one must use logical demonstration, and one must identify the universals which ‘inhere’ in the particulars of sense. Criteria for Demarcation: Logical Positivism also known as Verificationism * Held that only statements about empirical observations and formal logical propositions are meaningful, and that statements which are not derived in this manner (including religious and metaphysical statements) are by nature meaningless. * The Viennese philosophers who introduced the positivist paradigm effectively laid the groundwork for the modern philosophy of science and one of its most important strands of thought. The early Positivists favored a rather strict approach to the demarcation and strongly affirmed the empirical nature of science, meaning that questions that cannot be empirically verified or falsified are irrelevant to scientific thought. * These philosophers, who called themselves logical positivists, argued that to produce a meaningful claim, one must always return to the tangible observations that result from that claim. * By the late 1970s, its ideas were so generally recognized to be seriously defective. Falsifiability * Proposed by Karl Popper. In his monumental book, â€Å"The Logic of Scientific Discovery† he proposed the idea that scientific hypotheses must be falsifiable; unfalsifiable hypotheses should be considered pseudoscience. Popper’s emphasis on falsifiability changed the way scientists viewed the demarcation problem, and his impact on philosophy of science was enormous. * Popper’s demarcation criterion has been criticized both for excluding legitimate science and for giving some pseudosciences the status of being scientific. Postpositivism * Thomas Kuhn, an American historian and philosopher of science, is often connected with what has been called postpositivism. * In 1962, Kuhn published The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, which depicted the development of the basic natural sciences in an innovative way. According to Kuhn, the sciences do not uniformly progress strictly by scientific method. Rather, there are two fundamentally different phases of scientific development in the sciences. In the first phase, scientists work within a paradigm (set of accepted beliefs). When the foundation of the paradigm weakens and new theories and scientific methods begin to replace it, the next phase of scientific discovery takes place. Kuhn believes that scientific progress—that is, progress from one paradigm to another—has no logical reasoning. He undermines science as a whole by arguing that what is considered science changes throughout history in such a way that there is no objective way (outside of time or place) to demarcate a scientific belief from a pseudoscientific belief. Science, Kuhn argues, is like politics: institutions believe that certain ways are better than others at different points throughout history; however, it is impossible to be more or less certain of our basic assumptions about the world. Within a democracy (a specific political paradigm) there can be progress: an economy can grow, schools can be built, and people can be given healthcare. However, if a revolution occurs and the country becomes socialist, the government is not inherently better or worse than before, but simply begins to follow a different set of assumptions. Paradigm shift * A paradigm shift is a phenomenon described by philosopher Thomas Kuhn in The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. * Kuhn posited a process to explain the persistence of incorrect ideas, and the seemingly rapid and sudden abandonment of these ideas when they finally are rejected. * People tend to believe in what they know, and science is basically conservative. A current â€Å"paradigm† or theory is difficult to dislodge. It takes either a large volume of evidence, or a particularly powerful single piece of evidence to overturn major scientific theories (scientific revolution). When this occurs, it is called a â€Å"paradigm shift†. Lakatos’ research programs * Imre Lakatos combined elements of Popper and Kuhn’s philosophies with his concept of research programs. Programs that succeed at predicting novel facts are scientific, while ones that fail ultimately lapse into pseudoscience. Feyerabend and Lakatos * Kuhn’s work largely called into question Popper’s demarcation, and emphasized the human, subjective quality of scientific change. Paul Feyerabend was concerned that the very question of demarcation was insidious: science itself had no need of a demarcation criterion, but instead some philosophers were seeking to justify a special position of authority from which science could dominate public discourse. Feyerabend argued that science does not in fact occupy a special place in terms of either its logic or method, and no claim to special authority made by scientists can be upheld. He argued that, within the history of scientific practice, no rule or method can be found that has not been violated or circumvented at some point in order to advance scientific knowledge. Both Lakatos and Feyerabend suggest that science is not an autonomous form of reasoning, but is inseparable from the larger body of human thought and inquiry. NOMA * The concept of Non-overlapping Magisteria is a relatively recent attempt at proposing a clear demarcation between science and religion. It explicitly restricts science to its naturalistic foundations, meaning that no conclusions about supernatural phenomena like gods may be drawn from within the confines of science. â€Å"As to the supposed ‘conflict’†¦between science and religion, no such conflict should exist because each subject has a legitimate magisterium, or domain of teaching authority—and these magisteria do not overlap.† Criteria based on scientific progress Popper’s demarcation criterion concerns the logical structure of theories. Imre Lakatos described this criterion as â€Å"a rather stunning one. A theory may be scientific even if there is not a shred of evidence in its favour, and it may be pseudoscientific even if all the available evidence is in its favour. That is, the scientific or non-scientific character of a theory can be determined independently of the facts†. Instead, Lakatos proposed a modification of Popper’s criterion that he called â€Å"sophisticated (methodological) falsificationism†. On this view, the demarcation criterion should not be applied to an isolated hypothesis or theory but rather to a whole research program that is characterized by a series of theories successively replacing each other. In his view, a research program is progressive if the new theories make surprising predictions that are confirmed. In contrast, a degenerating research programme is characterized by theories bein g fabricated only in order to accommodate known facts. Progress in science is only possible if a research program satisfies the minimum requirement that each new theory that is developed in the program has a larger empirical content than its predecessor. If a research program does not satisfy this requirement, then it is pseudoscientific. According to Paul Thagard, a theory or discipline is pseudoscientific if it satisfies two criteria. One of these is that the theory fails to progress, and the other that â€Å"the community of practitioners makes little attempt to develop the theory towards solutions of the problems, shows no concern for attempts to evaluate the theory in relation to others, and is selective in considering confirmations and disconfirmations†. A major difference between his approach and that of Lakatos is that Lakatos would classify a nonprogressive discipline as pseudoscientific even if its practitioners work hard to improve it and turn it into a progressive discipline. In a somewhat similar vein, Daniel Rothbart (1990) emphasized the distinction between the standards that should be used when testing a theory and those that should be used when determining whether a theory should at all be tested. The latter, the eligibility criteria, include that the theory should encapsulate the explanatory success of its rival, and that it should yield test implications that are inconsistent with those of the rival. According to Rothbart, a theory is unscientific if it is not testworthy in this sense. George Reisch proposed that demarcation could be based on the requirement that a scientific discipline be adequately integrated into the other sciences. The various scientific disciplines have strong interconnections that are based on methodology, theory, similarity of models etc. Creationism, for instance, is not scientific because its basic principles and beliefs are incompatible with those that connect and unify the sciences. More generally speaking, says Reisch, an epistemic field is pseudoscientific if it cannot be incorporated into the existing network of established sciences. Rejection of the Problem * Some philosophers have rejected the idea of the demarcation problem, such as Larry Laudan. Others like Susan Haack, while not rejecting the problem wholesale, argue that a misleading emphasis has been placed on the problem that results in getting stuck in arguments over definitions rather than evidence. Laudan * Larry Laudan concluded, after examining various historical attempts to establish a demarcation criterion, that â€Å"philosophy has failed to deliver the goods† in its attempts to distinguish science from non-science—to distinguish science from pseudoscience. None of the past attempts would be accepted by a majority of philosophers nor, in his view, should they be accepted by them or by anyone else. He stated that many well-founded beliefs are not scientific and, conversely, many scientific conjectures are not well-founded. 3 Major Reasons why Demarcation is sometimes difficult: * science changes over time, * science is heterogeneous and; * established science itself is not free of the defects characteristic of pseudoscience